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Archaeology

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Archaeology_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Archaeology (disambiguation)">Archaeology (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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Archaeology or archeology<a href="#cite_note-spelling-1">[a]</a> is the study of human activity through the recovery and <a href="Analysis" title="Analysis">analysis</a> of <a href="Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>. The <a href="Archaeological_record" title="Archaeological record">archaeological record</a> consists of <a href="Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a>, <a href="Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="Biofact_(archaeology)" title="Biofact (archaeology)">biofacts</a> or ecofacts, <a href="Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">sites</a>, and <a href="Cultural_landscape" title="Cultural landscape">cultural landscapes</a>. Archaeology can be considered both a <a href="Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> and a branch of the <a href="Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Renfrew_Bahn1991-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a> It is usually considered an independent <a href="Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a>, but may also be classified as part of <a href="Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> (in North America – the <a href="Four-field_approach" title="Four-field approach">four-field approach</a>), <a href="History" title="History">history</a> or <a href="Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> The discipline involves <a href="Survey_(archaeology)" title="Survey (archaeology)">surveying</a>, <a href="Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">excavation</a>, and eventually <a href="Post_excavation" class="mw-redirect" title="Post excavation">analysis</a> of data collected, to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research.

Archaeologists study human <a href="Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a> and <a href="History" title="History">history</a>, from the development of the first <a href="Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a> at <a href="Lomekwi" title="Lomekwi">Lomekwi</a> in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a> Archaeology is distinct from <a href="Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>, which is the study of <a href="Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> remains. Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for which, by definition, there are no written records. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the <a href="Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> until the advent of literacy in societies around the world.<a href="#cite_note-Renfrew_Bahn1991-2">[1]</a> Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding <a href="Culture_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture history">culture history</a> to reconstructing past <a href="Lifeway" title="Lifeway">lifeways</a> to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time.<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a> Derived from Greek, the term archaeology means "the study of ancient history".<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a>

Archaeology developed out of <a href="Antiquarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiquarianism">antiquarianism</a> in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced around the world. Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopédie_d'histoire_numérique_de_l'Europe-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a> Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including <a href="Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">maritime archaeology</a>, <a href="Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">feminist archaeology</a>, and <a href="Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">archaeoastronomy</a>, and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with <a href="Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">pseudoarchaeology</a>, the <a href="Archaeological_looting" title="Archaeological looting">looting</a> of artifacts,<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> a lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">History of archaeology</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_instances_of_archaeology">First instances of archaeology</h3></div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Excavations of Nabonidus (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 550 BC)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:257px;max-width:257px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="Cylinders_of_Nabonidus" title="Cylinders of Nabonidus">Nabonidus cylinder from Sippar</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:131px;max-width:131px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Extract describing the excavation</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center"><a href="Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a> account of the excavation of a foundation deposit belonging to <a href="Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin of Akkad</a> (ruled c. 2200 BC), by king <a href="Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a> (ruled c. 550 BC).<a href="#cite_note-RS-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-RLK-14">[13]</a></div></div></div></div>

In <a href="Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a>, a foundation deposit of the <a href="Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> ruler <a href="Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin</a> (ruled <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2200 BC) was discovered and analysed by king <a href="Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a>, c. 550 BC, who is thus known as the first archaeologist.<a href="#cite_note-RS-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-RLK-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of the temples of <a href="Shamash" title="Shamash">Šamaš</a> the sun god, the warrior goddess <a href="Annunitum" title="Annunitum">Anunitu</a> (both located in <a href="Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a>), and the sanctuary that Naram-Sin built to the moon god, located in <a href="Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a>, but he also had them restored to their former glory.<a href="#cite_note-RS-13">[12]</a> He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it.<a href="#cite_note-hirst-16">[15]</a> Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1,500 years, it was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time.<a href="#cite_note-RS-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-hirst-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-RLK-14">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquarians">Antiquarians</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">Antiquarian</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">History of Chinese archaeology</a></div>

The science of archaeology (from <a href="Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia, from ἀρχαῖοςarkhaios 'ancient' and -λογία, -logia 'study')<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as <a href="Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">antiquarianism</a>. Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on the empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th century antiquary, <a href="Richard_Colt_Hoare" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Colt Hoare">Richard Colt Hoare</a>: "We speak from facts, not theory". Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a <a href="Science" title="Science">science</a> took place during the <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment period</a> in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a>

In <a href="Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial China</a> during the <a href="Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279), figures such as <a href="Ouyang_Xiu" title="Ouyang Xiu">Ouyang Xiu</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> and <a href="Zhao_Mingcheng" title="Zhao Mingcheng">Zhao Mingcheng</a> established the tradition of Chinese <a href="Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphy</a> by investigating, preserving, and analyzing ancient <a href="Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Chinese bronze inscriptions</a> from the <a href="Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> and <a href="Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> periods.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trigger-2006-21">[20]</a>(p74)<a href="#cite_note-Clunas-2004-22">[21]</a>(p95) In <a href="Dream_Pool_Essays" title="Dream Pool Essays">his book</a> published in 1088, <a href="Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> criticized contemporary Chinese scholars for attributing ancient bronze vessels as creations of famous sages rather than artisan commoners, and for attempting to revive them for ritual use without discerning their original functionality and purpose of manufacture.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> Such antiquarian pursuits waned after the Song period, were revived in the 17th century during the <a href="Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, but were always considered a branch of <a href="Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Chinese historiography</a> rather than a separate discipline of archaeology.<a href="#cite_note-Trigger-2006-21">[20]</a>(pp74–76)<a href="#cite_note-Clunas-2004-22">[21]</a>(p97)

In <a href="Renaissance_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Europe">Renaissance Europe</a>, philosophical interest in the remains of <a href="Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greco</a>-<a href="Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late <a href="Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, with <a href="Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanism</a>.

<a href="Cyriacus_of_Ancona" title="Cyriacus of Ancona">Cyriacus of Ancona</a> was a restlessly itinerant Italian <a href="Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanist</a> and <a href="Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">antiquarian</a> who came from a prominent family of merchants in <a href="Republic_of_Ancona" title="Republic of Ancona">Ancona</a>, a <a href="Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">maritime republic</a> on the <a href="Adriatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriatic">Adriatic</a>. He was called by his contemporaries pater antiquitatis ('father of antiquity') and today "father of classical archaeology": "Cyriac of Ancona was the most enterprising and prolific recorder of Greek and Roman antiquities, particularly inscriptions, in the fifteenth century, and the general accuracy of his records entitles him to be called the founding father of modern classical archeology."<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> He travelled throughout Greece and all around the Eastern Mediterranean, to record his findings on ancient buildings, statues and inscriptions, including archaeological remains still unknown to his time: the <a href="Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a>, <a href="Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a>, the <a href="Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>, the <a href="Hieroglyphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphics">hieroglyphics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> He noted down his archaeological discoveries in his diary, Commentaria (in six volumes).

<a href="Flavio_Biondo" title="Flavio Biondo">Flavio Biondo</a>, an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created a systematic guide to the ruins and <a href="Topography_of_ancient_Rome" title="Topography of ancient Rome">topography of ancient Rome</a> in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a>

Antiquarians of the 16th century, including <a href="John_Leland_(antiquary)" title="John Leland (antiquary)">John Leland</a> and <a href="William_Camden" title="William Camden">William Camden</a>, conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a>

The <a href="Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> first cites "archaeologist" from 1824; this soon took over as the usual term for one major branch of antiquarian activity. "Archaeology", from 1607 onward, initially meant what we would call "ancient history" generally, with the narrower modern sense first seen in 1837. However, it was <a href="Jacob_Spon" title="Jacob Spon">Jacob Spon</a> who, in 1685, offered one of the earliest definitions of "archaeologia" to describe the study of antiquities in which he was engaged, in the preface of a collection of <a href="Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">transcriptions of Roman inscriptions</a> which he had gleaned over the years of his travels, entitled Miscellanea eruditae antiquitatis.

Twelfth-century Indian scholar <a href="Kalhana" title="Kalhana">Kalhana</a>'s writings involved recording of local traditions, examining manuscripts, inscriptions, coins and architectures, which is described as one of the earliest traces of archaeology. One of his notable work is called Rajatarangini which was completed c. 1150 and is described as one of the first history books of India.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-renfrew-31">[30]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_excavations">First excavations</h3></div>

One of the first sites to undergo archaeological <a href="Excavations_at_Stonehenge" title="Excavations at Stonehenge">excavation</a> was <a href="Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a> and other <a href="Megalith" title="Megalith">megalithic</a> monuments in England. <a href="John_Aubrey" title="John Aubrey">John Aubrey</a> (1626–1697) was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous <a href="Megalith" title="Megalith">megalithic</a> and other <a href="Ancient_monument" title="Ancient monument">field monuments</a> in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a>

Excavations were also carried out by the Spanish military engineer <a href="Roque_Joaqu%C3%ADn_de_Alcubierre" title="Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre">Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre</a> in the ancient towns of <a href="Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <a href="Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, both of which had been covered by ash during the <a href="Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_AD_79" class="mw-redirect" title="Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79">Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79</a>. These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of <a href="Fresco" title="Fresco">frescos</a>, had a big impact throughout Europe.

However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as <a href="Stratification_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratification (archaeology)">stratification</a> and <a href="Archaeological_context" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological context">context</a> were overlooked.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a>

In the mid-18th century, the German <a href="Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Johann Joachim Winckelmann</a> lived in Rome and devoted himself to the study of Roman antiquities, gradually acquiring an unrivalled knowledge of ancient art.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> Then, he visited the archaeological excavations being conducted at <a href="Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <a href="Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> He was one of the founders of scientific archaeology and first applied the categories of style on a large, systematic basis to the <a href="History_of_art" title="History of art">history of art</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> He was one of the first to separate Greek art into periods and time classifications.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> Winckelmann has been called both "The prophet and founding hero of <a href="Modern_archaeology" title="Modern archaeology">modern archaeology</a>"<a href="#cite_note-b584-38">[37]</a> and the father of the discipline of <a href="Art_history" title="Art history">art history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_archaeological_method">Development of archaeological method</h3></div>

The father of archaeological excavation was <a href="William_Cunnington" title="William Cunnington">William Cunnington</a> (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in <a href="Wiltshire" title="Wiltshire">Wiltshire</a> from around 1798,<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of <a href="Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> and <a href="Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <a href="Tumulus" title="Tumulus">barrows</a>, and the terms he used to categorize and describe them are still used by archaeologists today.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> Future <a href="President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> <a href="Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> also did his own excavations in 1784 using the <a href="Trench" title="Trench">trench</a> method, on several <a href="Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> burial mounds in <a href="Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>. His excavations were prompted by the <a href="Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">"Moundbuilders" question</a>; however, his careful methods led him to admit he saw no reason why ancestors of the Native Americans of his time could not have raised those mounds.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a>

One of the major achievements of 19th-century archaeology was the development of <a href="Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a>. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new <a href="Geology" title="Geology">geological</a> and <a href="Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontological</a> work of scholars like <a href="William_Smith_(geologist)" title="William Smith (geologist)">William Smith</a>, <a href="James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a> and <a href="Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>. The systematic application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of <a href="Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistorical</a> and <a href="Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like <a href="Jacques_Boucher_de_Perthes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacques Boucher de Perthes">Jacques Boucher de Perthes</a> and <a href="Christian_J%C3%BCrgensen_Thomsen" title="Christian Jürgensen Thomsen">Christian Jürgensen Thomsen</a> began to put the artifacts they had found in chronological order.

A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was army officer and <a href="Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnologist</a> <a href="Augustus_Pitt_Rivers" title="Augustus Pitt Rivers">Augustus Pitt Rivers</a>,<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. Highly methodical by the standards of the time, he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He <a href="Pitt_Rivers_Museum" title="Pitt Rivers Museum">arranged his artifacts</a> by type or "<a href="Typology_(archaeology)" title="Typology (archaeology)">Typology (archaeology)</a>", and within types chronologically. This style of arrangement, designed to highlight the evolutionary trends in human artifacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artifacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a>

<a href="William_Flinders_Petrie" class="mw-redirect" title="William Flinders Petrie">William Flinders Petrie</a> is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artifacts, both in Egypt and later in <a href="Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, laid down many of the ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details." Petrie developed the <a href="Seriation_(archaeology)" title="Seriation (archaeology)">system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings</a>, which revolutionized the chronological basis of <a href="Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a>. Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the <a href="Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid</a> in Egypt during the 1880s.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> He was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including <a href="Howard_Carter" title="Howard Carter">Howard Carter</a> who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh <a href="Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a>.

The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of <a href="Hissarlik" class="mw-redirect" title="Hissarlik">Hissarlik</a>, on the site of ancient <a href="Troy" title="Troy">Troy</a>, carried out by <a href="Heinrich_Schliemann" title="Heinrich Schliemann">Heinrich Schliemann</a>, <a href="Frank_Calvert" title="Frank Calvert">Frank Calvert</a> and <a href="Wilhelm_D%C3%B6rpfeld" title="Wilhelm Dörpfeld">Wilhelm Dörpfeld</a> in the 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the <a href="Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> Meanwhile, the work of Sir <a href="Arthur_Evans" title="Arthur Evans">Arthur Evans</a> at <a href="Knossos" title="Knossos">Knossos</a> in <a href="Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced <a href="Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a>

The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir <a href="Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Mortimer Wheeler</a>, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly. Wheeler developed the <a href="Wheeler-Kenyon_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheeler-Kenyon method">grid system of excavation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> which was further improved by his student <a href="Kathleen_Kenyon" title="Kathleen Kenyon">Kathleen Kenyon</a>.

Archaeology became a <a href="Professional" title="Professional">professional</a> activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when <a href="Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">maritime archaeology</a> and <a href="Urban_archaeology" title="Urban archaeology">urban archaeology</a> became more prevalent and <a href="Rescue_archaeology" title="Rescue archaeology">rescue archaeology</a> was developed as a result of increasing commercial development.<a href="#cite_note-Renfrew_Bahn1991#5-49">[48]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose">Purpose</h2></div>

The purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and the development of the <a href="Human" title="Human">human</a> race. Over 99% of the development of humanity has occurred within prehistoric cultures, who did not make use of <a href="Literacy" title="Literacy">writing</a>, thereby no written records exist for study purposes. Without such written sources, the only way to understand prehistoric societies is through archaeology. Because archaeology is the study of past human activity, it stretches back to about 2.5 million years ago when the first <a href="Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">stone tools</a> are found – <a href="Oldowan" title="Oldowan">The Oldowan Industry</a>. Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, such as the <a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">evolution of humanity</a> during the <a href="Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> period, when the <a href="Hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominin">hominins</a> developed from the <a href="Australopithecines" class="mw-redirect" title="Australopithecines">australopithecines</a> in <a href="Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and eventually into modern <a href="Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a>. Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity's technological advances, for instance the ability to use fire, the development of <a href="Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a>, the discovery of <a href="Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, the beginnings of <a href="Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> and the creation of <a href="Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. Without archaeology, little or nothing would be known about the use of material culture by humanity that pre-dates writing.<a href="#cite_note-ncl-50">[49]</a>

However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literate cultures as well, through the sub-discipline of <a href="Historical_archaeology" title="Historical archaeology">historical archaeology</a>. For many literate cultures, such as <a href="Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> and <a href="Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the <a href="Elite" title="Elite">elite</a> classes, such as the <a href="Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a>, or the <a href="Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a> of court or temple. The literacy of <a href="Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocrats</a> has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into <a href="Library" title="Library">libraries</a> and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own biases, such as <a href="Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">sampling bias</a> and differential preservation.<a href="#cite_note-archaeological-51">[50]</a>

Often, archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people of the past. Across the millennia many thousands of cultures and societies and billions of people have come and gone of which there is little or no written record or existing records are misrepresentative or incomplete. Writing as it is known today did not exist in human civilization until the 4th millennium BC, in a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilizations. In contrast, Homo sapiens has existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of Homo for millions of years (see <a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a>). These civilizations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they are open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Within a literate civilization many events and important human practices may not be officially recorded. Any knowledge of the early years of human civilization – the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities – must come from archaeology.

In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political or cultural significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies.

This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Mummy, and King Solomon's Mines. When unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see <a href="Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a>). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of modern archaeology.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory">Theory</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Archaeological_theory" title="Archaeological theory">Archaeological theory</a></div>

There is no one approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to archaeological theory to be practised was that of <a href="Cultural-history_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural-history archaeology">cultural-historical archaeology</a>, which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that they did, therefore emphasizing <a href="Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">historical particularism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-52">[51]</a> In the early 20th century, many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of <a href="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a>, <a href="Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberians</a>, <a href="Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamericans</a> etc.) followed the <a href="Direct_historical_approach" title="Direct historical approach">direct historical approach</a>, compared the continuity between the past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-52">[51]</a> In the 1960s, an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like <a href="Lewis_Binford" title="Lewis Binford">Lewis Binford</a> and <a href="Kent_Flannery" title="Kent Flannery">Kent Flannery</a> arose that rebelled against the established cultural-history archaeology.<a href="#cite_note-Binford1962-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Flannery1967-54">[53]</a> They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with <a href="Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> testing and the <a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> very important parts of what became known as <a href="Processual_archaeology" title="Processual archaeology">processual archaeology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-52">[51]</a>

In the 1980s, a new <a href="Postmodern" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodern">postmodern</a> movement arose led by the British archaeologists <a href="Michael_Shanks_(archaeologist)" title="Michael Shanks (archaeologist)">Michael Shanks</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Shanks_Tilley1987-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shanks_Tilley1988-56">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shanks1991-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shanks1993-58">[57]</a> <a href="Christopher_Tilley" title="Christopher Tilley">Christopher Tilley</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Tilley1993-59">[58]</a> <a href="Daniel_Miller_(anthropologist)" title="Daniel Miller (anthropologist)">Daniel Miller</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Miller_Tilley1984-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Miller_etal1989-61">[60]</a> and <a href="Ian_Hodder" title="Ian Hodder">Ian Hodder</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hodder1982-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodder1985-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodder1987-64">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodder1990-65">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodder1991-66">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodder1992-67">[66]</a> which has become known as <a href="Post-processual_archaeology" title="Post-processual archaeology">post-processual archaeology</a>. It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasized the importance of a more self-critical theoretical <a href="Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">reflexivity</a>. However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigour, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate. Meanwhile, another theory, known as historical processualism, has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and history.<a href="#cite_note-Pauketat2001-68">[67]</a>

Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including <a href="Systems_theory_in_archaeology" title="Systems theory in archaeology">systems theory</a>, <a href="Evolution" title="Evolution">neo-evolutionary thought</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hinshaw2000-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hinshaw2000-35">[35]</a> <a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, <a href="Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>, <a href="Structure_and_agency" title="Structure and agency">agency theory</a>, <a href="Cognitive_archaeology" title="Cognitive archaeology">cognitive science</a>, <a href="Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">structural functionalism</a>, <a href="Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, <a href="Gender_archaeology" title="Gender archaeology">gender-based</a> and <a href="Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">feminist archaeology</a>, <a href="Queer_theory" title="Queer theory">queer theory</a>, <a href="Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonial thoughts</a>, <a href="Materiality_(social_sciences_and_humanities)" title="Materiality (social sciences and humanities)">materiality</a>, and <a href="Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">posthumanism</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2></div>

An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however, a clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is <a href="Archaeological_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological survey">surveyed</a> to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the information collected during the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve the original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected.<a href="#cite_note-renfrew-31">[30]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remote_sensing">Remote sensing</h3></div>

Before actually starting to dig in a location, <a href="Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">remote sensing</a> can be used to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments—passive and active. Passive instruments detect natural energy that is reflected or emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. <a href="Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">Satellite imagery</a> is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are two active remote sensing instruments:

<ul><li>Lidar: <a href="Lidar" title="Lidar">Lidar</a> (light detection and ranging) uses a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) to transmit a light pulse and a receiver with sensitive detectors to measure the backscattered or reflected light. Distance to the object is determined by recording the time between the transmitted and backscattered pulses and using the speed of light to calculate the distance travelled. Lidars can determine atmospheric profiles of aerosols, clouds, and other constituents of the atmosphere.</li>

<li>Laser altimeter: A laser altimeter uses a lidar (see above) to measure the height of the instrument platform above the surface. By independently knowing the height of the platform with respect to the mean Earth's surface, the topography of the underlying surface can be determined.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a></li>

<li>Drones: Archaeologists around the world use <a href="Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">drones</a> to speed up survey work and protect sites from squatters, builders and miners. In Peru, small drones helped researchers produce three-dimensional models of Peruvian sites instead of the usual flat maps – and in days and weeks instead of months and years.<a href="#cite_note-peru-71">[70]</a> Drones costing as little as £650 have proven useful. In 2013, drones have flown over at least six Peruvian archaeological sites, including the colonial Andean town Machu Llacta 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) above sea level. The drones continue to have altitude problems in the Andes, leading to plans to make a drone <a href="Blimp" title="Blimp">blimp</a>, employing open source software.<a href="#cite_note-peru-71">[70]</a> Jeffrey Quilter, an archaeologist with Harvard University said, "You can go up three metres and photograph a room, 300 metres and photograph a site, or you can go up 3,000 metres and photograph the entire valley."<a href="#cite_note-peru-71">[70]</a> In September 2014 drones weighing about 5 kg (11 lb) were used for 3D mapping of the above-ground ruins of the Greek city of <a href="Aphrodisias" title="Aphrodisias">Aphrodisias</a>. The data are being analysed by the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Vienna.<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Field_survey">Field survey</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Archaeological_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological survey">Archaeological survey</a></div>

The archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with a field survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and <a href="Midden" title="Midden">middens</a>, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.

Survey was not widely practised in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible <a href="Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">features</a> there. <a href="Gordon_Willey" title="Gordon Willey">Gordon Willey</a> pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the <a href="Viru_Valley" title="Viru Valley">Viru Valley</a> of coastal <a href="Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Willey1953-73">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Willey1968-74">[73]</a> and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.<a href="#cite_note-Billmand_Feinman1999-75">[74]</a>

Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ <a href="Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">sampling</a> methods.)<a href="#cite_note-Redman1974-76">[75]</a> As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as <a href="Human_settlement" title="Human settlement">settlement patterns</a> and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into <a href="Map" title="Map">maps</a>, which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution.

The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as <a href="Auger_(drill)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auger (drill)">augers</a>, corers, and <a href="Shovel_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Shovel test">shovel test</a> pits. If no materials are found, the area surveyed is deemed <a href="Sterile_deposit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sterile deposit">sterile</a>.

<a href="Aerial_survey" title="Aerial survey">Aerial survey</a> is conducted using <a href="Camera" title="Camera">cameras</a> attached to <a href="Airplane" title="Airplane">airplanes</a>, <a href="Balloon_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balloon (aircraft)">balloons</a>, <a href="UAVs" class="mw-redirect" title="UAVs">UAVs</a>, or even <a href="Kite" title="Kite">Kites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. <a href="Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> growing above a buried human-made structure, such as a stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as <a href="Midden" title="Midden">middens</a>) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening <a href="Cereal" title="Cereal">grain</a>, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs <a href="Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>, <a href="Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a>, <a href="Ground-penetrating_radar" title="Ground-penetrating radar">ground-penetrating radar</a> wavelengths, <a href="Lidar" title="Lidar">Lidar</a> and <a href="Thermography" title="Thermography">thermography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a>

<a href="Geophysical_survey_(archaeology)" title="Geophysical survey (archaeology)">Geophysical survey</a> can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground. <a href="Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">Magnetometers</a> detect minute deviations in the <a href="Earth's_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> caused by <a href="Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> artifacts, <a href="Kiln" title="Kiln">kilns</a>, some types of <a href="Stone_structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone structures">stone structures</a>, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the <a href="Electrical_resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistivity">electrical resistivity</a> of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity.

Although some archaeologists consider the use of <a href="Metal_detector" title="Metal detector">metal detectors</a> to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying.<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on <a href="English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th-century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the <a href="Portable_Antiquities_Scheme" title="Portable Antiquities Scheme">Portable Antiquities Scheme</a>.

Regional survey in <a href="Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">underwater archaeology</a> uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, <a href="Side-scan_sonar" title="Side-scan sonar">side-scan sonar</a>, or sub-bottom sonar.<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Excavation">Excavation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">Archaeological excavation</a></div>

Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as <a href="Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a>, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.

Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their <a href="Provenance" title="Provenance">provenance</a> or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see <a href="Harris_matrix#Harris'_laws_of_archaeological_stratigraphy" title="Harris matrix">Primary Laws of Archaeology</a>). Likewise, their <a href="Archaeological_association" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological association">association</a>, or <a href="Relationship_(archaeology)" title="Relationship (archaeology)">relationship</a> with nearby objects and <a href="Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">features</a>, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which <a href="Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a> and features were likely used together and which may be from different <a href="Archaeological_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological phase">phases</a> of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures.

Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries <a href="Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of a site excavated depends greatly on the country and "method statement" issued. <a href="Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">Sampling</a> is even more important in excavation than in survey. Sometimes large mechanical equipment, such as <a href="Backhoe" title="Backhoe">backhoes</a> (<a href="J._C._Bamford" class="mw-redirect" title="J. C. Bamford">JCBs</a>), is used in excavation, especially to remove the <a href="Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a> (<a href="Overburden" title="Overburden">overburden</a>), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with <a href="Trowel" title="Trowel">trowels</a> or <a href="Hoe_(tool)" title="Hoe (tool)">hoes</a> to ensure that all features are apparent.

The next task is to form a <a href="Archaeological_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological plan">site plan</a> and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the <a href="Archaeological_natural" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological natural">natural subsoil</a> are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible <a href="Archaeological_section" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological section">archaeological section</a> for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the <a href="Cut_(archaeology)" title="Cut (archaeology)">cut</a> and the <a href="Fill_(archaeology)" title="Fill (archaeology)">fill</a>. The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature's boundary. The fill is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and <a href="Single_context_recording" title="Single context recording">recording</a> sheets are filled in describing the <a href="Archaeological_context" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological context">context</a> of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis">Analysis</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Post-excavation_analysis" title="Post-excavation analysis">Post-excavation analysis</a></div>

Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them. This process is known as <a href="Post-excavation_analysis" title="Post-excavation analysis">post-excavation analysis</a>, and is usually the most time-consuming part of an archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for final excavation reports for major sites to take years to be published.

At a basic level of analysis, artifacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections. This comparison process often involves classifying them <a href="Typology_(archaeology)" title="Typology (archaeology)">typologically</a> and identifying other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through <a href="Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">archaeological science</a>, meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. Bones, plants, and pollen collected from a site can all be analysing using the methods of <a href="Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">zooarchaeology</a>, <a href="Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">paleoethnobotany</a>, <a href="Palynology" title="Palynology">palynology</a> and <a href="Stable_isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotopes">stable isotopes</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a> while any texts can usually be <a href="Deciphering" class="mw-redirect" title="Deciphering">deciphered</a>.

These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known, and therefore they contribute greatly to the understanding of a site.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subfields">Subfields</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Subfields_of_archaeology" title="Subfields of archaeology">Subfields of archaeology</a></div>

As with most <a href="Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academic</a> disciplines, there are a very large number of <a href="Archaeological_sub-disciplines" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological sub-disciplines">archaeological sub-disciplines</a> characterized by a specific method or type of material (e.g., <a href="Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">lithic analysis</a>, <a href="Music_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Music (archaeology)">music</a>, <a href="Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">archaeobotany</a>), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. <a href="Near_Eastern_archaeology" title="Near Eastern archaeology">Near Eastern archaeology</a>, <a href="Islamic_archaeology" title="Islamic archaeology">Islamic archaeology</a>, <a href="Medieval_archaeology" title="Medieval archaeology">Medieval archaeology</a>), other thematic concern (e.g. maritime archaeology, <a href="Landscape_archaeology" title="Landscape archaeology">landscape archaeology</a>, <a href="Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">battlefield archaeology</a>), or a specific <a href="Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">archaeological culture</a> or <a href="Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a> (e.g. <a href="Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a>, <a href="Indology" title="Indology">Indology</a>, <a href="Sinology" title="Sinology">Sinology</a>).<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_archaeology">Historical archaeology</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Historical_archaeology" title="Historical archaeology">Historical archaeology</a></div>

Historical archaeology is the study of cultures with some form of writing and deals with objects and issues from the past.

In <a href="Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval Europe</a>, archaeologists have explored the illicit burial of unbaptized children in medieval texts and cemeteries.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a> In downtown <a href="New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the <a href="African_Burial_Ground_National_Monument" title="African Burial Ground National Monument">African Burial Ground</a>. When remnants of the <a href="WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="WWII">WWII</a> <a href="Siegfried_Line" title="Siegfried Line">Siegfried Line</a> were being destroyed, emergency archaeological digs took place whenever any part of the line was removed, to further scientific knowledge and reveal details of the line's construction.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeology</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeology</a></div>

<a href="Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeology</a> is the ethnographic study of living people, designed to aid in our interpretation of the archaeological record.<a href="#cite_note-Gould1971a-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gould1971b-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yellen1972-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yellen1977-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gould_Yellen1987-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yellen1991-89">[88]</a> The approach first gained prominence during the processual movement of the 1960s, and continues to be a vibrant component of post-processual and other current archaeological approaches.<a href="#cite_note-Hinshaw2000-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sillet_et_al2006-90">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schott_Sillitoe2005-91">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ogundele2005-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-kuznar2001-93">[92]</a> Early ethnoarchaeological research focused on <a href="Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> or foraging societies; today ethnoarchaeological research encompasses a much wider range of human behaviour.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Experimental_archaeology">Experimental archaeology</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experimental archaeology</a></div>

<a href="Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experimental archaeology</a> represents the application of the experimental method to develop more highly controlled observations of processes that create and impact the archaeological record.<a href="#cite_note-Ascher1961-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Saraydar_Shimada1971-95">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-Saraydar_Shimada1973-96">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gifford-Gonzalez_et_al1985-97">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frison1989-98">[97]</a> In the context of the logical positivism of processualism with its goals of improving the scientific rigor of archaeological <a href="Epistemological" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological">epistemologies</a>, the experimental method gained importance. Experimental techniques remain a crucial component to improving the inferential frameworks for interpreting the archaeological record.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeometry">Archaeometry</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">Archaeological science</a></div>

<a href="Archaeometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeometry">Archaeometry</a> aims to systematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the application of analytical techniques from physics, chemistry, and engineering. It is a field of research that frequently focuses on the definition of the chemical composition of archaeological remains for source analysis.<a href="#cite_note-Glasscock_et_al1994-99">[98]</a> Archaeometry also investigates different spatial characteristics of features, employing methods such as space syntax techniques and <a href="Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a> as well as computer-based tools such as <a href="Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information system</a> technology.<a href="#cite_note-GIS,_critique,_representation_and_beyond-100">[99]</a> <a href="Rare_earth_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth elements">Rare earth elements</a> patterns may also be used.<a href="#cite_note-An_anthropic_soil_transformation_fingerprinted_by_REY_patterns-101">[100]</a> A relatively nascent subfield is that of archaeological materials, designed to enhance understanding of prehistoric and non-industrial culture through scientific analysis of the structure and properties of materials associated with human activity.<a href="#cite_note-mit-102">[101]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_archaeology">Digital archaeology</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Digital_archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital archeology">Digital archeology</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Computational_archaeology" title="Computational archaeology">Computational archaeology</a> and <a href="Virtual_archaeology" title="Virtual archaeology">Virtual archaeology</a></div>

Digital Archeology is an interdiscplinary field that applies <a href="Information_technology_(IT)" class="mw-redirect" title="Information technology (IT)">information technology (IT)</a>, digital tools, and data management techniques to archaeology. It includes <a href="Virtual_archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual archeology">virtual archeology</a> and <a href="Computational_archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational archeology">computational archeology</a>.

Examples of digital archaeology include the use of <a href="Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">computer graphics</a> to create virtual <a href="3D_modeling" title="3D modeling">3D models</a> of sites, like the throne room of an Assyrian palace or ancient Rome.<a href="#cite_note-virt-103">[102]</a> <a href="Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a> and digital <a href="Topography" title="Topography">topographical</a> models are combined with <a href="Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomical</a> calculations to check if structures, such as pillars, align with astronomical events like the sun's position at a <a href="Solstice" title="Solstice">solstice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-virt-103">[102]</a> <a href="Agent-based_modelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Agent-based modelling">Agent-based modelling</a> and <a href="Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">simulation</a> are used to understand past social dynamics and outcomes. <a href="Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a> is applied to large collections of archaeological 'grey literature'.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_resources_management">Cultural resources management</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cultural_resource_management" title="Cultural resource management">Cultural resource management</a></div>

Archaeology can be a subsidiary activity within Cultural resource management (CRM), also called <a href="Cultural_heritage_management" title="Cultural heritage management">Cultural heritage management</a> (CHM) in the UK.<a href="#cite_note-The_University_of_Exeter_–_SoGAER_–_Department_of_Archaeology-104">[103]</a> CRM archaeologists frequently examine archaeological sites threatened by development. CRM accounts for most archaeological research done in the US and much of that in <a href="Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">western Europe</a>. In the US, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the <a href="National_Historic_Preservation_Act" title="National Historic Preservation Act">National Historic Preservation Act</a> (NHPA) of 1966. Most scholars and politicians believe CRM has helped preserve much of the US' history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, the NHPA mandates that projects on federal land, or involving federal funds or permits, consider the effects of the project on each <a href="Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">archaeological site</a>.

The application of CRM in the UK is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990, <a href="PPG_16" title="PPG 16">PPG 16</a><a href="#cite_note-Planning_Policy_Guidance_16:_Archaeology_and_planning_–_Planning,_building_and_the_environment_–_Communities_and_Local_Government-105">[104]</a> has required planners to consider archaeology as a <a href="Material_consideration" title="Material consideration">material consideration</a> in determining applications for new development. As a result, archaeological organizations undertake mitigation work in advance of, or during, construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the <a href="Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">developer's expense</a>. Some of the largest archaeological projects ever undertaken in the UK are due to major infrastructure projects like the <a href="A14_road_(England)" title="A14 road (England)">A14</a> road improvement scheme, or the building of <a href="HS2" class="mw-redirect" title="HS2">HS2</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a>

In England, ultimate responsibility of care for the historic environment rests with the <a href="Department_for_Culture%2C_Media_and_Sport" title="Department for Culture, Media and Sport">Department for Culture, Media and Sport</a><a href="#cite_note-Department_for_Culture_Media_and_Sport_–_historic_environment-108">[107]</a> in association with <a href="English_Heritage" title="English Heritage">English Heritage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-English_Heritage_–_Stonehenge_&_the_History_of_England:_English_Heritage-109">[108]</a> In <a href="Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and <a href="Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>, the same responsibilities lie with <a href="Historic_Scotland" title="Historic Scotland">Historic Scotland</a>,<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> <a href="Cadw" title="Cadw">Cadw</a><a href="#cite_note-Cadw-111">[110]</a> and the <a href="Northern_Ireland_Environment_Agency" title="Northern Ireland Environment Agency">Northern Ireland Environment Agency</a><a href="#cite_note-Built_Environment-112">[111]</a> respectively. In France, the <a href="Institut_national_du_patrimoine" title="Institut national du patrimoine">Institut national du patrimoine</a> (The National Institute of Cultural Heritage) trains <a href="Curator" title="Curator">curators</a> specialized in archaeology. Their mission is to enhance the objects discovered. The curator is the link between scientific knowledge, administrative regulations, heritage objects and the public.

Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of <a href="Cultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural">cultural</a> sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves an examination to determine whether significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavations indicate the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely.

Cultural resources management has been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and expected budget. The agency responsible for the construction often chooses the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in much less time that might be allotted for a solely academic project. Compounding the time pressure is the vetting process of site reports that are required to be submitted by CRM firms to the appropriate <a href="State_Historic_Preservation_Office" title="State Historic Preservation Office">State Historic Preservation Office</a> (SHPO). From the SHPO's perspective there is no difference between a report submitted by a CRM firm operating under tight deadline, and a multi-year academic project.

The ratio of open academic archaeology positions to the number of archaeology MA/MSc and PhD students is high. CRM, once an intellectual backwater for individuals with "strong backs and weak minds",<a href="#cite_note-Flannery1982-113">[112]</a> has attracted these graduates, and CRM offices are increasingly staffed by advance degreed workers with a track record of producing scholarly articles, but who also have extensive CRM field experience.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protection">Protection</h2></div>

The protection of archaeological finds for the public from catastrophes, wars and armed conflicts is increasingly being implemented internationally. This happens on the one hand through international agreements and on the other hand through organizations that monitor or enforce protection. <a href="United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, <a href="UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> and <a href="Blue_Shield_International" title="Blue Shield International">Blue Shield International</a> deal with the protection of cultural heritage and thus also archaeological sites. This also applies to the integration of <a href="United_Nations_peacekeeping" title="United Nations peacekeeping">United Nations peacekeeping</a>. Blue Shield International has undertaken various fact-finding missions in recent years to protect archaeological sites during the wars in Libya, Syria, Egypt and Lebanon. The importance of archaeological finds for identity, tourism and sustainable economic growth is repeatedly emphasized internationally.<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a>

The president of Blue Shield International, <a href="Karl_von_Habsburg" title="Karl von Habsburg">Karl von Habsburg</a>, said during a cultural property protection mission in Lebanon in April 2019 with the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon: "Cultural assets are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often have no prospects anymore and subsequently flee from their homeland."<a href="#cite_note-unifil.unmissions.org-120">[119]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Popular_views_of_archaeology">Popular views of archaeology</h2></div>

Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities and was mostly done by upper class, scholarly men. This general tendency laid the foundation for the modern popular view of archaeology and archaeologists. Many of the public view archaeology as something only available to a narrow demographic. The job of archaeologist is depicted as a "romantic adventurist occupation",<a href="#cite_note-McGeough_2006_174–185-121">[120]</a> and as a hobby more than a job in the scientific community. Cinema audiences form a notion of "who archaeologists are, why they do what they do, and how relationships to the past are constituted",<a href="#cite_note-McGeough_2006_174–185-121">[120]</a> and is often under the impression that all archaeology takes place in a distant and foreign land, only to collect monetarily or spiritually priceless artifacts. The modern depiction of archaeology has incorrectly formed the public's perception of what archaeology is.

Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as <a href="Cop%C3%A1n" title="Copán">Copán</a> and the <a href="Valley_of_the_Kings" title="Valley of the Kings">Valley of the Kings</a>, but the bulk of activities and finds of modern archaeology are not so sensational. Archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in carrying out modern surveys, <a href="Excavation_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excavation (archaeology)">excavations</a>, and data processing. Some archaeologists refer to such off-the-mark portrayals as "pseudoarchaeology".<a href="#cite_note-Romancing_the_Past-Archaeology-122">[121]</a>

Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support; the question of for whom they are working is often discussed.<a href="#cite_note-Denning2004-123">[122]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_issues_and_controversy">Current issues and controversy</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_archaeology">Public archaeology</h3></div>

Motivated by a desire to halt looting, curb pseudoarchaeology, and to help preserve archaeological sites through education and fostering public appreciation for the importance of archaeological heritage, archaeologists are mounting public-outreach campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-Anthropological_Studies_Center_(ASC)-124">[123]</a> They seek to stop looting by combatting people who illegally take artifacts from protected sites, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting. Common methods of public outreach include press releases, the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation by professional archaeologists, and making reports and publications accessible outside of academia.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> Public appreciation of the significance of archaeology and archaeological sites often leads to improved protection from encroaching development or other threats.

One audience for archaeologists' work is the public. Archaeologists increasingly realize that their work can benefit non-academic and non-archaeological audiences, and that they have a responsibility to educate and inform the public about archaeology. Local heritage awareness is aimed at increasing civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects, and better public presentations of archaeological sites and knowledge. The U.S. Department of Agriculture, <a href="US_Forest_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="US Forest Service">Forest Service</a> (USFS) operates a volunteer archaeology and historic preservation program called the Passport in Time (PIT). Volunteers work with professional USFS archaeologists and historians on national forests throughout the U.S. Volunteers are involved in all aspects of professional archaeology under expert supervision.<a href="#cite_note-rapidcityjournal-127">[126]</a>

Television programs, web videos and social media can also bring an understanding of underwater archaeology to a broad audience. The Mardi Gras Shipwreck Project<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> integrated a one-hour HD documentary,<a href="#cite_note-Mystery_Mardi_Gras_Shipwreck-129">[128]</a> short videos for public viewing and video updates during the expedition as part of the educational outreach. Webcasting is also another tool for educational outreach. For one week in 2000 and 2001, live <a href="Underwater_videography" title="Underwater videography">underwater video</a> of the <a href="Queen_Anne's_Revenge" title="Queen Anne's Revenge">Queen Anne's Revenge</a> Shipwreck Project was <a href="Webcast" title="Webcast">webcast</a> to the <a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> as a part of the QAR DiveLive<a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a> educational program that reached thousands of children around the world. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">

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</style><cite id="CITEREFSoutherlyGillman-Bryan2009" class="citation conference cs1">Southerly, C.; Gillman-Bryan, J. (19 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090219004153/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4760">Diving on the Queen Anne's Revenge</a>. The American Academy of Underwater Sciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4760">the original</a> on 19 February 2009.</cite> Created and co-produced by <a href="Nautilus_Productions" title="Nautilus Productions">Nautilus Productions</a> and Marine Grafics, this project enabled students to talk to scientists and learn about methods and technologies used by the underwater archaeology team.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a>

In the UK, popular archaeology programs such as <a href="Time_Team" title="Time Team">Time Team</a> and <a href="Meet_the_Ancestors" title="Meet the Ancestors">Meet the Ancestors</a> have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provisions for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did,<a href="#cite_note-internet-133">[132]</a> and many local archaeological organizations operate within the <a href="Community_archaeology" title="Community archaeology">Community archaeology</a> framework<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a> to expand public involvement in smaller-scale, more local projects. Archaeological excavation, however, is best undertaken by well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately. Often this requires observing the necessary <a href="Health_and_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Health and safety">health and safety</a> and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern <a href="Construction" title="Construction">building site</a> with tight deadlines. Certain charities and <a href="Local_government" title="Local government">local government</a> bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial <a href="Training_excavations" class="mw-redirect" title="Training excavations">training excavations</a> and archaeological holiday tours.

Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies, which is one reason why <a href="Community_archaeology" title="Community archaeology">Community archaeology</a> projects are starting to become more common. Often archaeologists are assisted by the public in the locating of archaeological sites, which professional archaeologists have neither the funding, nor the time to do.

Archaeological Legacy Institute (ALI), is a registered 501[c] [3] non-profit, media and education corporation registered in Oregon in 1999. ALI founded a website, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archaeologychannel.org/">The Archaeology Channel</a> to support the organization's mission "to nurturing and bringing attention to the human cultural heritage, by using media in the most efficient and effective ways possible."<a href="#cite_note-The_Archaeology_Channel_and_About_Us:_Archaeological_Legacy_Institute-135">[134]</a>

There is a considerable international body of research focused on archaeology and public value and tangible benefits of archaeology include<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> helping to counteract racism, documenting accomplishments of ignored communities, providing time-depth as a response to short-termism of the modern age, and contributing to human ecology, independent evidence base, historic context development and tourism.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> The delivery of public benefits through archaeology can be summarised as follows: through making a contribution to a shared history,<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a> artistic and cultural treasures, local values, place-making and social cohesion, educational benefits, contribution to science and innovation, health and wellbeing, and added economic value to developers.<a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-internet-133">[132]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></div>

Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that falsely claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted and scientific archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processual archaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in <a href="Post-processual_archaeology" title="Post-processual archaeology">post-processualism</a>.

An example of this type is the writing of <a href="Erich_von_D%C3%A4niken" title="Erich von Däniken">Erich von Däniken</a>. His 1968 book, <a href="Chariots_of_the_Gods%3F" title="Chariots of the Gods?">Chariots of the Gods?</a>, together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilization on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilizations. This theory, known as <a href="Palaeocontact_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeocontact theory">palaeocontact theory</a>, or <a href="Ancient_astronaut_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient astronaut theory">Ancient astronaut theory</a>, is not exclusively Däniken's, nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Looting">Looting</h3></div>

<a href="Archaeological_looting" title="Archaeological looting">Looting of archaeological sites</a> is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian <a href="Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaohs</a> were looted during <a href="Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">antiquity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-civilizations-140">[139]</a> Archaeology stimulates interest in ancient objects, and people in search of artifacts or treasure cause damage to archaeological sites. The commercial and academic demand for artifacts contributes directly to the <a href="Illicit_antiquities" class="mw-redirect" title="Illicit antiquities">illicit antiquities</a> trade. Smuggling of antiquities abroad to private collectors has caused great cultural and economic damage in many countries whose governments lack the resources and or the will to deter it. Looters damage and destroy archaeological sites, denying future generations information about their ethnic and cultural heritage. Indigenous peoples especially lose access to and control over their 'cultural resources', ultimately denying them the opportunity to know their past.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-141">[140]</a>

In 1937, W. F. Hodge the director of the <a href="Southwest_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest Museum">Southwest Museum</a> released a statement that the museum would no longer purchase or accept collections from looted contexts.<a href="#cite_note-Hodge1937-142">[141]</a> The first conviction of the transport of artifacts illegally removed from private property under the <a href="Archaeological_Resources_Protection_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological Resources Protection Act">Archaeological Resources Protection Act</a> was in 1992 in the State of Indiana.<a href="#cite_note-Munson_et_al1995-143">[142]</a>

Archaeologists trying to protect artifacts may be placed in danger by looters or locals trying to protect the artifacts from archaeologists who are viewed as looters by the locals.<a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a>

Some historical archaeology sites are subjected to looting by <a href="Metal_detector" title="Metal detector">metal detector</a> hobbyists who search for artifacts using increasingly advanced technology. Efforts are underway among all major Archaeological organizations to increase education and legitimate cooperation between amateurs and professionals in the metal detecting community.<a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a>

While most looting is deliberate, accidental looting can occur when amateurs, who are unaware of the importance of Archaeological rigor, collect artifacts from sites and place them into private collections.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descendant_peoples">Descendant peoples</h3></div>

In the United States, examples such as the case of <a href="Kennewick_Man" title="Kennewick Man">Kennewick Man</a> have illustrated the tensions between <a href="Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> and archaeologists, which can be summarized as a conflict between a need to remain respectful toward sacred burial sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present.

As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the <a href="Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a> (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of <a href="Postprocessualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Postprocessualism">postprocessualism</a>, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of <a href="Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a> likely to be descended from those under study.

Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.

While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Repatriation">Repatriation</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Repatriation_and_reburial_of_human_remains" title="Repatriation and reburial of human remains">Repatriation and reburial of human remains</a></div>

A new trend in the heated controversy between <a href="First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a> groups and scientists is the <a href="Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a> of native artifacts to the original descendants. An example of this occurred on 21 June 2005, when community members and elders from a number of the 10 <a href="Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian</a> nations in the <a href="Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a> area convened on the <a href="Kitigan_Zibi" title="Kitigan Zibi">Kitigan Zibi</a> reservation near <a href="Maniwaki%2C_Quebec" class="mw-redirect" title="Maniwaki, Quebec">Maniwaki, Quebec</a>, to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods—some dating back 6,000 years. It was not determined, however, if the remains were directly related to the <a href="Algonquin_people" title="Algonquin people">Algonquin people</a> who now inhabit the region. The remains may be of Iroquoian ancestry, since Iroquoian people inhabited the area before the Algonquin. Moreover, the oldest of these remains might have no relation at all to the Algonquin or Iroquois, and belong to an earlier culture who previously inhabited the area.

The remains and artifacts, including <a href="Jewelry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewelry">jewelry</a>, <a href="Tool" title="Tool">tools</a> and <a href="Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons">weapons</a>, were originally excavated from various sites in the <a href="Ottawa_Valley" title="Ottawa Valley">Ottawa Valley</a>, including <a href="Morrison_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Morrison Island">Morrison</a> and the <a href="Allumette_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Allumette Island">Allumette Islands</a>. They had been part of the <a href="Canadian_Museum_of_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Museum of Civilization">Canadian Museum of Civilization</a>'s research collection for decades, some since the late 19th century. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional <a href="Juniperus_virginiana" title="Juniperus virginiana">red cedar</a> and <a href="Birch_bark" title="Birch bark">birch bark</a> boxes lined with red cedar chips, <a href="Muskrat" title="Muskrat">muskrat</a> and <a href="Beaver#Commercial_use" title="Beaver">beaver pelts</a>.

An inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 80 boxes of various sizes are buried. Because of this reburial, no further scientific study is possible. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement.<a href="#cite_note-Canadian_Geographic_Online-146">[145]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_diaspora_archaeology">African diaspora archaeology</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="African_diaspora_archaeology" title="African diaspora archaeology">African diaspora archaeology</a></div>

African Diaspora Archaeology is an area of study within the subfield of historical archaeology that studies those that have been forcibly transported through the <a href="Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic Slave Trade</a>, the <a href="Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan Slave Trade</a>, and the <a href="Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean Slave Trade</a>, as well as their descendants. Although of global relevance, most research has been conducted in the Americas and Africa.<a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a>

In the United States, Similar to the experience of Native Americans, the history of African diaspora archaeology is one of controversies over <a href="Whiteness_theory" title="Whiteness theory">Whiteness</a> in archaeology and anthropology, a lack of inclusion of the African descendant community,<a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a> and possession of human remains in the collections of universities and museums.<a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> In the 1990s, anthropologist <a href="Michael_Blakey_(anthropologist)" title="Michael Blakey (anthropologist)">Michael Blakey</a> was the director of research during the <a href="African_Burial_Ground_National_Monument" title="African Burial Ground National Monument">New York African Burial Ground Project</a> where he initiated a protocol for collaborating with the African descendant community. In 2011, the <a href="Society_of_Black_Archaeologists" title="Society of Black Archaeologists">Society of Black Archaeologists</a> was created in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a> Co-founders Ayana Omilade Flewellen, archaeologist at the <a href="University_of_California%2C_Riverside" title="University of California, Riverside">University of California, Riverside</a> and Justin Dunnavant, archaeologist and assistant professor of anthropology at the <a href="University_of_California%2C_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a> intend to build a restorative justice-based structure in archaeology. They suggest to define descendants not only in genealogical terms, but also to welcome input of African Americans whose ancestors had a shared historical experience in enslavement.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a>

The <a href="United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> unanimously passed a bill<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a> in December 2020 that centers African American cemeteries at risk in South Carolina. The bill is made to better protect historic African burial grounds and can lead to the creation of an African American Burial Grounds Network.<a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> <a href="Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>, eight days after becoming a <a href="Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> on November 30, 2021, announced plans for the construction of the Newton Enslaved Burial Ground Memorial as well as a museum dedicated to the history of the <a href="Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-smithsonianmag.com-155">[154]</a> The Ghanaian-British architect <a href="David_Adjaye" title="David Adjaye">David Adjaye</a> is to lead the project that is to commemorate an estimated 570 West Africans buried in unmarked graves at the site of the former Newton sugar plantation.<a href="#cite_note-smithsonianmag.com-155">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a> Barbados can be seen as a good example of respectful preservation of an African burial ground. Throughout the <a href="Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> however the burial grounds are in danger of being destroyed or human remains are being excavated without the descendant community being involved.<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a> In 2022, residents on <a href="Sint_Eustatius" title="Sint Eustatius">Sint Eustatius</a>, <a href="Dutch_Caribbean" title="Dutch Caribbean">Dutch Caribbean</a> spoke out strongly against what they found were unethical excavations of their ancestors on the <a href="Godet_African_Burial_Ground" title="Godet African Burial Ground">Godet African Burial Ground</a> and the <a href="Golden_Rock_African_Burial_Ground" title="Golden Rock African Burial Ground">Golden Rock African Burial Ground</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change_and_archaeology">Climate change and archaeology</h3></div>

As anthropogenic <a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> affects our environment, projections show that there will be changes in rainfall with increased drought and desertification, increases in intensity and frequency of rainfall, increases in temperature (winter and summer), increases in both the temperature and frequency of heatwaves, rising sea levels, and warmer seas, ocean acidification and changes in oceanic currents. These climate drivers will result in changes to flora and fauna, and changes in ground conditions (both on and below the surface) and so will also affect archaeological deposits and structures, while human responses to the climate crisis will also impact archaeological sites. The archaeologist's knowledge and skills are relevant to supporting society in adapting to a changing climate and a low carbon future.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> Another effect of higher temperatures has been melting of glaciers and ice patches. This has led to the discovery of artifacts and bodies long buried in the ice, fostering the new field of <a href="Glacial_archaeology" title="Glacial archaeology">glacial archaeology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a>

Archaeological sites can be seen as habitats that support ecosystems and fulfil biodiversity goals.<a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="AI_in_archaeology">AI in archaeology</h4></div>

As <a href="Artificial_intelligence_(AI)" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial intelligence (AI)">artificial intelligence (AI)</a> continues to influence scientific research, its application in archaeological studies has become increasingly significant. For instance, AI models have been utilized to identify archaeological remains in <a href="The_Empty_Quarter" class="mw-redirect" title="The Empty Quarter">the Empty Quarter</a> of the <a href="Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> Additionally, AI technology has facilitated the discovery of 303 new geoglyphs in Nazca.<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> – Scientific study of humans, human behavior, and societies</li>

<li><a href="Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> – Interdisciplinary study of astronomies in cultures</li>

<li><a href="Archaeobiology" title="Archaeobiology">Archaeobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a> – Application of the techniques of molecular population genetics to the study of the human past</li>

<li><a href="Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">Archaeological science</a> – Application of scientific techniques to archaeology</li>

<li><a href="Archaeology_and_racism" title="Archaeology and racism">Archaeology and racism</a></li>

<li><a href="Archaeology_of_religion_and_ritual" title="Archaeology of religion and ritual">Archaeology of religion and ritual</a></li>

<li><a href="Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a> – Type of research using evidence from archival records</li>

<li><a href="Area_of_archaeological_potential" title="Area of archaeological potential">Area of archaeological potential</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeology</a> – Sub-discipline of archaeology</li>

<li><a href="Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">Chronological dating</a> – Methods for estimating a realistic date for an event or object</li>

<li><a href="Classical_archaeology" title="Classical archaeology">Classical archaeology</a> – Sub-discipline of archaeology</li>

<li><a href="Computational_archaeology" title="Computational archaeology">Computational archaeology</a> – Archaeological sub-discipline</li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_archaeological_sites" title="Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites">Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites</a> – Process in archaeology</li>

<li><a href="Digital_archaeology" title="Digital archaeology">Digital archaeology</a> – Application of digital technology to archaeology</li>

<li><a href="Disturbance_(archaeology)" title="Disturbance (archaeology)">Disturbance (archaeology)</a> – Change to an archaeological site</li>

<li><a href="Dump_digging" title="Dump digging">Dump digging</a> – Excavating garbage dumps to find objects of interest</li>

<li><a href="Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental archaeology</a> – Sub-discipline of archaeology</li>

<li><a href="Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environmental history</a> – Specialisation of history</li>

<li><a href="Geophysical_survey_(archaeology)" title="Geophysical survey (archaeology)">Geophysical survey (archaeology)</a> – Non-invasive physical sensing techniques used for archaeological imaging or mapping</li>

<li><a href="GIS_in_archaeology" title="GIS in archaeology">GIS in archaeology</a> – Aspect of GIS usage</li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Glossary of archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Harris_matrix" title="Harris matrix">Harris matrix</a> – Method of depicting site stratigraphy</li>

<li><a href="Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a> – Study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments</li>

<li><a href="Intellectual_Property_Issues_in_Cultural_Heritage_project" title="Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural Heritage project">Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural Heritage project</a> – Cultural heritage research initiative</li>

<li><a href="Landscape_archaeology" title="Landscape archaeology">Landscape archaeology</a> – Sub-discipline of archaeology and archaeological theory</li>

<li><a href="Landscape_history" title="Landscape history">Landscape history</a> – Study of changes in the physical environment caused by human activities.</li>

<li><a href="Magnetic_survey_(archaeology)" title="Magnetic survey (archaeology)">Magnetic survey (archaeology)</a> – Magnetic detection of archaeological artefacts and features</li>

<li><a href="Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a> – Archaeological study of human interaction with the sea</li>

<li><a href="Nationalism_and_archaeology" title="Nationalism and archaeology">Nationalism and archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Palaeoanthropology</a> – Study of ancient humans</li>

<li><a href="Remote_sensing_in_archaeology" title="Remote sensing in archaeology">Remote sensing in archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_archaeology" title="Urban archaeology">Urban archaeology</a> – Archaeological sub-discipline</li>

<li><a href="Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeology</a> – Analysis of animal remains found in archaeological sites</li></ul>

Lists

<ul><li><a href="List_of_archaeological_excavations_by_date" title="List of archaeological excavations by date">List of archaeological excavations by date</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_archaeological_periods" title="List of archaeological periods">List of archaeological periods</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_archaeological_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeological sites by country">List of archaeological sites by country</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_archaeologists" title="List of archaeologists">List of archaeologists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_archaeology_awards" title="List of archaeology awards">List of archaeology awards</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_paleoethnobotanists" title="List of paleoethnobotanists">List of paleoethnobotanists</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-spelling-1"><a href="#cite_ref-spelling_1-0">^</a> from <a href="Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> ἀρχαῖος (archaios) 'ancient' and λογία (logia) 'study of'.<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> Although <a href="American_and_British_English_spelling_differences#ae_and_oe" title="American and British English spelling differences">American English usually does not use -ae spellings</a>, archaeology is the standard spelling across the English-speaking world, including the United States.<a href="#cite_note-HirstSpelling-172">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> Some US government bodies and university presses use archeology in accordance with the <a href="GPO_Style_Manual" class="mw-redirect" title="GPO Style Manual">GPO Style Manual</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Society_for_American_Archaeology-174">[173]</a> Another uncommon variant is archæology, using the archaic <a href="Orthographic_ligature" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthographic ligature">ligature</a> <a href="%C3%86" title="Æ">æ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HirstSpelling-172">[171]</a>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWinckelmann2006" class="citation book cs1">Winckelmann, Johann Joachim (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofartofan0000winc">History of the art of antiquity</a>. Potts, Alex. Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-89236-668-2</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-b584-38"><a href="#cite_ref-b584_38-0">^</a> <a href="#Boorstin">Boorstin</a>, 584

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<li><cite id="CITEREFFlannery,_K._V.1967" class="citation journal cs1">Flannery, K. V. (1967). "Culture History v. Culture Process: A Debate in American archaeology". Scientific American. 217 (2): 119–22. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0867-119">10.1038/scientificamerican0867-119</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFlannery,_K._V.1982" class="citation journal cs1">Flannery, K. V. (1982). "The Golden Marshalltown: A Parable for the Archaeology of the 1980s". American Anthropologist. 84 (2): 265–278. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1982.84.2.02a00010">10.1525/aa.1982.84.2.02a00010</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFraser,_Julius_ThomasFrancis_C._Haber1986" class="citation book cs1">Fraser, Julius Thomas; Francis C. Haber (1986). Time, Science, and Society in China and the West. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGlascock,_M._D.Neff,_H.Stryker,_K._S.Johnson,_T._N.1994" class="citation journal cs1">Glascock, M. D.; Neff, H.; Stryker, K. S. & Johnson, T. N. (1994). "Sourcing archaeological obsidian by an abbreviated NAA procedure". Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. 180 (1): 29–35. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994JRNC..180...29G">1994JRNC..180...29G</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02039899">10.1007/BF02039899</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:97455573">97455573</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGifford-Gonzalez,_D._P.Damrosch,_D._B.Damrosch,_D._R.Pryor,_J.1985" class="citation journal cs1">Gifford-Gonzalez, D. P.; Damrosch, D. B.; Damrosch, D. R.; Pryor, J. & Thunen, R. L. (1985). "The Third Dimension in Site Structure: An Experiment in Trampling and Vertical Dispersal". American Antiquity. 50 (4): 803–818. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F280169">10.2307/280169</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/280169">280169</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163218164">163218164</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGladfelter,_B._G.1977" class="citation journal cs1">Gladfelter, B. G. (1977). "Geoarchaeology: The Geomorphologist and Archaeology". American Antiquity. 42 (4). Society for American Archaeology: 519–538. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F278926">10.2307/278926</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/278926">278926</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163453920">163453920</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGould,_R.1971a" class="citation journal cs1">Gould, R. (1971a). "The Archaeologist as Ethnographer: A Case from the Western Desert of Australia". World Archaeology. 3 (2): 143–177. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1969.9979499">10.1080/00438243.1969.9979499</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGould,_R.Koster,_D._A.Sontz,_A._H._L.1971b" class="citation journal cs1">Gould, R.; Koster, D. A. & Sontz, A. H. L. (1971b). "The Lithic Assemblage of the Western Desert Aborigines of Australia". American Antiquity. 36 (2): 149–169. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F278668">10.2307/278668</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/278668">278668</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163617121">163617121</a>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFHavilandPrinsMcBrideWalrath2010" class="citation book cs1">Haviland, William A.; Prins, Harald E. L.; McBride, Bunny; Walrath, Dana (2010). Cultural Anthropology: The human challenge (13th ed.). Cengage. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-495-81082-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHinshaw,_J.2000" class="citation book cs1">Hinshaw, J. (2000). Ethnobotanical and Archaeobotanical Relationships: A Yuman case study. Salinas: Coyote Press. pp. 3–7, 38–45.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHodder,_I.1982" class="citation book cs1">Hodder, I. (1982). Symbols in Action. Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHodder,_I.1985" class="citation book cs1">Hodder, I. (1985). "Post-processual archaeology". In Schiffer, M. B. (ed.). Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory. New York: Academic Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHodder,_I.1987" class="citation book cs1">Hodder, I., ed. (1987). The Archaeology of Contextual Meaning. New York: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHodder,_I.1990" class="citation book cs1">Hodder, I. (1990). "Style as historical quality". In Hastorf, M. (ed.). The Uses of Style in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHodder,_I.1991" class="citation journal cs1">Hodder, I. (1991). "Interpretive Archaeology and Its Role". American Antiquity. 56 (1). Society for American Archaeology: 7–18. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F280968">10.2307/280968</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/280968">280968</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163936790">163936790</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHodder,_I.1992" class="citation book cs1">Hodder, I. (1992). Theory and Practice in Archaeology. London, UK: Routledge.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKuznar,_L.2001" class="citation book cs1">Kuznar, L., ed. (2001). Ethnoarchaeology of Andean South America. Ann Arbor, MI: International Monographs in Prehistory.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFMiller,_D.Rowlands,_M.Tilley,_C.1989" class="citation book cs1">Miller, D.; Rowlands, M.; Tilley, C., eds. (1989). Dominion and Resistance. New York, NY: Routledge.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFOgundele,_S._O.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ogundele, S. O. (2005). "Ethnoarchaeology of domestic space and spatial behaviour among the Tiv and Ungwai of central Nigeria". African Archaeological Review. 22 (1): 25–54. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10437-005-3158-2">10.1007/s10437-005-3158-2</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145452535">145452535</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPauketat,_T._R.2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Timothy_Pauketat" title="Timothy Pauketat">Pauketat, T. R.</a> (2001). "Practice and History in Archaeology: An Emerging Paradigm". Anthropological Theory. 1 (1): 73–98. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14634990122228638">10.1177/14634990122228638</a> (inactive 11 July 2025).</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRenfrew,_C.Bahn,_P._G.1991" class="citation book cs1">Renfrew, C.; Bahn, P. G. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologytheor00renf_0">Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice</a>. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-500-27867-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSaraydar,_S._C.Shimada,_I.1971" class="citation journal cs1">Saraydar, S. C.; Shimada, I. (1971). "A Quantitative Comparison of Efficiency Between A Stone Axe and A Steel Axe". American Antiquity. 36 (2): 216–217. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F278680">10.2307/278680</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/278680">278680</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163927190">163927190</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSaraydar,_S._C.Shimada,_I.1973" class="citation journal cs1">Saraydar, S. C.; Shimada, I. (1973). "Experimental archaeology: A new outlook". American Antiquity. 38 (3): 344–350. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F279722">10.2307/279722</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/279722">279722</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163223665">163223665</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSellet,_F.Greaves,_R.Yu,_P.-L.2006" class="citation book cs1">Sellet, F.; Greaves, R. & Yu, P.-L. (2006). Archaeology and Ethnoarchaeology of Mobility. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFShanks,_M.Tilley,_C.1987" class="citation book cs1">Shanks, M.; Tilley, C. (1987). Reconstructing Archaeology. New York: Cambridge university Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFShanks,_M.Tilley,_C.1988" class="citation book cs1">Shanks, M.; Tilley, C. (1988). Social Theory and Archaeology. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7456-0184-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFShanks,_M.1991" class="citation journal cs1">Shanks, M. (1991). "Some recent approaches to style and social reconstruction in classical archaeology". Archaeological Review from Cambridge. 10: 164–174.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFShanks,_M.1993" class="citation journal cs1">Shanks, M. (1993). "Style and the design of a perfume jar from an Archaic Greek city state". Journal of European Archaeology. 1 (1): 77–106. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F096576693800731190">10.1179/096576693800731190</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFShott,_M._J.Sillitoe,_P.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Shott, M. J.; Sillitoe, P. (2005). "Use life and curation in New Guinea experimental used flakes". Journal of Archaeological Science. 32 (5): 653–663. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JArSc..32..653S">2005JArSc..32..653S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2004.11.012">10.1016/j.jas.2004.11.012</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTassie,_G._J.Owens,_L._S.2010" class="citation book cs1">Tassie, G. J.; Owens, L. S. (2010). Standards of Archaeological Excavations: A Fieldguide to the Methology, Recording Techniques and Conventions. London: GHP. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-906137-17-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTaylor,_W._W.1948" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, W. W. (1948). A Study of Archaeology. Menasha: American Anthropological Association. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-906367-12-4</bdi>.</cite> <code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTilley,_Christopher1993" class="citation book cs1">Tilley, Christopher, ed. (1993). Interpretive Archaeology. Oxford: Berg. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-85496-842-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTrigger,_B._G.1989" class="citation book cs1">Trigger, B. G. (1989). A History of Archaeological Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWatters,_M._R.1992" class="citation book cs1">Watters, M. R. (1992). Principles of Geoarchaeology: A North American Perspective. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWatters,_M._R.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Watters, M. R. (2000). "Alluvial stratigraphy and geoarchaeology in the American Southwest". Geoarchaeology. 15 (6): 537–557. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Gearc..15..537W">2000Gearc..15..537W</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1520-6548%28200008%2915%3A6%3C537%3A%3AAID-GEA5%3E3.0.CO%3B2-E">10.1002/1520-6548(200008)15:6<537::AID-GEA5>3.0.CO;2-E</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilley,_G._R.1953" class="citation book cs1">Willey, G. R. (1953). Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in the Virú Valley, Perú. Washington, D.C.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilley,_G.1968" class="citation book cs1">Willey, G. (1968). Settlement Archaeology. Palo Alto, CA: National Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWylie,_A.1985" class="citation book cs1">Wylie, A. (1985). "The reaction against analogy". In Schiffer, Michael B. (ed.). Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. pp. 63–111.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYellen,_J.Harpending,_H.1972" class="citation journal cs1">Yellen, J.; Harpending, H. (1972). "Hunter-Gatherer Populations and Archaeological Inference". World Archaeology. 4 (2): 244–253. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1972.9979535">10.1080/00438243.1972.9979535</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16468220">16468220</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYellen,_J.1977" class="citation book cs1">Yellen, J. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologicalap00yell">Archaeological Approaches to the Present</a>. New York: Academic Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-12-770350-3</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography of anthropology</a> and <a href="Table_of_years_in_archaeology" title="Table of years in archaeology">Table of years in archaeology</a></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFHodderShanksAlexandriBuchili2008" class="citation book cs1">Hodder, Ian; Shanks, Michael; Alexandri, Alexandar; Buchili, Victor; Carman, John; Last, Jonathan; Lucas, Gavin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/37558339">Interpreting Archaeology: Finding Meaning in the Past</a>. London: Routledge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210816112849/https://www.academia.edu/37558339">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFOlsenShanksWebmoorWitmore2012" class="citation book cs1">Olsen, Bjørnar; Shanks, Michael; Webmoor, Timothy; Witmore, Christopher (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36747616">Archaeology: The Discipline of Things</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-520-95400-7</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817064224/https://www.academia.edu/36747616">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRathjeShanksWitmore2013" class="citation book cs1">Rathje, William; Shanks, Michael; Witmore, Christoper (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/37112895">Archaeology in the Making</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-415-63480-9</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210819010429/https://www.academia.edu/37112895">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFShanks1992" class="citation book cs1">Shanks, Michael (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4016761">Experiencing the Past: On the Character of Archaeology</a>. London and New York: Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-203-97363-1</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817063907/https://www.academia.edu/4016761">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite></li>

<li><a href="Archaeology_(magazine)" title="Archaeology (magazine)">Archaeology</a> (magazine)</li>

<li><a href="Lewis_Binford" title="Lewis Binford">Lewis Binford</a> – New Perspectives in Archaeology (1968) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-202-33022-2</bdi></li>

<li><a href="Glyn_Daniel" title="Glyn Daniel">Glyn Daniel</a> – A Short History of Archaeology (1991)</li>

<li><a href="Kevin_Greene_(archaeologist)" title="Kevin Greene (archaeologist)">Kevin Greene</a> – Introduction to Archaeology (1983)</li>

<li>Thomas Hester, Harry Shafer, and <a href="Kenneth_L._Feder" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth L. Feder">Kenneth L. Feder</a> – Field Methods in Archaeology 7th edition (1997)</li>

<li><a href="Ian_Hodder" title="Ian Hodder">Ian Hodder</a> & Scott Hutson – "Reading the Past" 3rd. edition (2003)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHutchings_Rich,_La_Salle_Marina2014" class="citation journal cs1">Hutchings Rich, La Salle Marina (2014). "Teaching Anti-Colonial Archaeology". Archaeologies. 10 (1): 27–69. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11759-014-9250-y">10.1007/s11759-014-9250-y</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154800430">154800430</a>.</cite></li>

<li><a href="International_Journal_of_South_American_Archaeology" title="International Journal of South American Archaeology">International Journal of South American Archaeology</a> – IJSA (magazine)</li>

<li><a href="Internet_Archaeology" title="Internet Archaeology">Internet Archaeology</a>, e-journal</li>

<li>C. U. Larsen – Sites and Monuments (1992)</li>

<li>Adrian Praetzellis – Death by Theory, AltaMira Press (2000). <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7425-0359-5</bdi></li>

<li><a href="Colin_Renfrew" title="Colin Renfrew">Colin Renfrew</a> & Paul Bahn – Archaeology: theories, methods and practice, 2nd edition (1996)</li>

<li>Smekalova, T. N.; Voss O.; & Smekalov S. L. (2008). "<a href="Magnetic_survey_(archaeology)" title="Magnetic survey (archaeology)">Magnetic Surveying in Archaeology</a>. More than 10 years of using the Overhauser GSM-19 gradiometer". Wormianum.</li>

<li><a href="David_Hurst_Thomas" title="David Hurst Thomas">David Hurst Thomas</a> – Archaeology, 3rd. ed. (1998)</li>

<li>Robert J. Sharer & Wendy Ashmore – Archaeology: Discovering our Past 2nd edition (1993)</li>

<li><a href="Bruce_Trigger" title="Bruce Trigger">Bruce Trigger</a> – "A History of Archaeological Thought" 2nd. edition (2007)</li>

<li><a href="Alison_Wylie" title="Alison Wylie">Alison Wylie</a> – Thinking From Things: Essays in the Philosophy of Archaeology, <a href="University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, Berkeley CA, 2002</li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<ul><li> Works related to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Archaeology" class="extiw external" title="wikisource:Portal:Archaeology">Archaeology</a> at Wikisource</li></ul>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Archaeology" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/Archaeology">Archaeology</a>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has more on the topic of: <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Archaeology" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Special:Search/Archaeology">Archaeology</a></div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Archaeological_sites#Q23498" class="extiw external" title="wikivoyage:Archaeological sites">Archaeological sites</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fastionline.org/">Fasti Online</a> – an online database of archaeological sites</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/">The Archaeology Data Service – Open access online archive for UK and global archaeology</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archaeology.ws/worldarchnews.html">World Archaeology News – weekly update from BBC Radio archaeologist, Win Scutt</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archaeologychannel.org/">The Archaeology Channel</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Archaeology372" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological sites</a></li>

<li><a href="Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">Antiquarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Johann Joachim Winckelmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Sir_Richard_Hoare%2C_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir Richard Hoare, 2nd Baronet">Richard Hoare</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinrich_Schliemann" title="Heinrich Schliemann">Heinrich Schliemann</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Evans" title="Arthur Evans">Arthur Evans</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Lloyd_Stephens" title="John Lloyd Stephens">John Lloyd Stephens</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Henry_Holmes" title="William Henry Holmes">William Henry Holmes</a></li>

<li><a href="Augustus_Pitt_Rivers" title="Augustus Pitt Rivers">Augustus Pitt Rivers</a></li>

<li><a href="Flinders_Petrie" title="Flinders Petrie">Flinders Petrie</a></li>

<li><a href="Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Mortimer Wheeler</a></li>

<li><a href="Dorothy_Garrod" title="Dorothy Garrod">Dorothy Garrod</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_V._Kidder" title="Alfred V. Kidder">Alfred V. Kidder</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Method and theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archaeological_theory" title="Archaeological theory">Archaeological theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Philosophy of archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Archaeological_diving" title="Archaeological diving">Archaeological diving</a></li>

<li><a href="Archaeological_ethics" title="Archaeological ethics">Archaeological ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_archaeological_sites" title="Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites">Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites</a></li>

<li><a href="Survey_(archaeology)" title="Survey (archaeology)">Survey</a>

<ul><li><a href="Geophysical_survey_(archaeology)" title="Geophysical survey (archaeology)">geophysical survey</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrical_resistance_survey" title="Electrical resistance survey">electrical resistance survey</a></li>

<li><a href="Sondage" title="Sondage">Sondage</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Burnt_layer" title="Burnt layer">Burnt layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">Excavation</a></li>

<li><a href="Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">Lithic analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-excavation_analysis" title="Post-excavation analysis">Post-excavation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Subfields_of_archaeology" title="Subfields of archaeology">Sub-disciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chronological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Prehistoric_archaeology" title="Prehistoric archaeology">Prehistoric</a></li>

<li><a href="Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistoric</a></li>

<li><a href="Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_archaeology" title="Classical archaeology">Classical</a></li>

<li><a href="Medieval_archaeology" title="Medieval archaeology">Medieval</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-medieval_archaeology" title="Post-medieval archaeology">Post-Medieval</a></li>

<li><a href="Historical_archaeology" title="Historical archaeology">Historical</a></li>

<li><a href="Contemporary_archaeology" title="Contemporary archaeology">Contemporary</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="African_archaeology" title="African archaeology">African</a></li>

<li><a href="Archaeology_of_the_Americas" title="Archaeology of the Americas">American</a></li>

<li>Asian</li>

<li><a href="Australian_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian archaeology">Australian</a></li>

<li><a href="Archaeology_in_Oceania" title="Archaeology in Oceania">Oceanian</a></li>

<li><a href="Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptian</a></li>

<li><a href="Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Mesopotamian</a></li>

<li><a href="Near_Eastern_archaeology" title="Near Eastern archaeology">Near Eastern</a></li>

<li><a href="Nubiology" title="Nubiology">Nubian</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methodological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Medieval_bioarchaeology" title="Medieval bioarchaeology">Medieval</a></li>

<li><a href="Near_Eastern_bioarchaeology" title="Near Eastern bioarchaeology">Near Eastern</a></li>

<li><a href="Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li>

<li><a href="Paleopathology" title="Paleopathology">Paleopathology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Calceology" title="Calceology">Calceology</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_archaeology" title="Digital archaeology">Digital</a>

<ul><li><a href="Archaeogaming" title="Archaeogaming">Archaeogaming</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_archaeology" title="Computational archaeology">Computational</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_archaeology" title="Virtual archaeology">Virtual</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a>

<ul><li><a href="Geoarchaeology" title="Geoarchaeology">Geoarchaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotany</a></li>

<li><a href="Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experimental</a></li>

<li><a href="Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Thematic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">Archaeometry</a></li>

<li><a href="Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li>

<li><a href="Conflict_archaeology" title="Conflict archaeology">Conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Funerary_archaeology" title="Funerary archaeology">Funerary</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_archaeology" title="Gender archaeology">Gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Indigenous_archaeology" title="Indigenous archaeology">Indigenous</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_archaeology" title="Industrial archaeology">Industrial</a></li>

<li><a href="Landscape_archaeology" title="Landscape archaeology">Landscape</a></li>

<li><a href="Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li>

<li><a href="Mortuary_archaeology" title="Mortuary archaeology">Mortuary</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenology_(archaeology)" title="Phenomenology (archaeology)">Phenomenology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Queer_archaeology" title="Queer archaeology">Queer</a></li>

<li><a href="Transgender_archaeology" title="Transgender archaeology">Transgender</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Sites

<ul><li><a href="List_of_archaeological_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeological sites by country">by country</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_archaeological_periods" title="List of archaeological periods">Periods</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_archaeologists" title="List of archaeologists">Archaeologists</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_Egyptologists" title="List of Egyptologists">Egyptologists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li>

<li><a href="Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitologists</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_archaeology_journals" title="List of archaeology journals">Journals</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3AHistory" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cultural_heritage_and_historic_preservation527" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Cultural_heritage_and_historic_preservation527" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a> and <a href="Historic_preservation" title="Historic preservation">historic preservation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics and issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agents_of_deterioration" title="Agents of deterioration">Agents of deterioration</a></li>

<li><a href="Archival_processing" title="Archival processing">Archival processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">Archaeological science</a></li>

<li><a href="Archive" title="Archive">Archive</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Calendar_(archives)" title="Calendar (archives)">Calendar (archives)</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_cultural_property" title="Conservation and restoration of cultural property">Conservation and restoration of cultural property</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_immovable_cultural_property" title="Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property">Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_movable_cultural_property" title="Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property">Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_science_(cultural_property)" title="Conservation science (cultural property)">Conservation science (cultural property)</a></li>

<li><a href="Collecting" title="Collecting">Collecting</a></li>

<li><a href="Collection_(museum)" title="Collection (museum)">Collection (museum)</a></li>

<li><a href="Collection_catalog" title="Collection catalog">Collection catalog</a></li>

<li><a href="Collections_maintenance" title="Collections maintenance">Collections maintenance</a></li>

<li><a href="Collections_management" title="Collections management">Collections management</a></li>

<li><a href="Collections_management_system" title="Collections management system">Collections management system</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_heritage_management" title="Cultural heritage management">Cultural heritage management</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_property" title="Cultural property">Cultural property</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_property_documentation" title="Cultural property documentation">Cultural property documentation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_property_exhibition" title="Cultural property exhibition">Cultural property exhibition</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_property_imaging" title="Cultural property imaging">Cultural property imaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_property_storage" title="Cultural property storage">Cultural property storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_resource_management" title="Cultural resource management">Cultural resource management</a></li>

<li><a href="Database_preservation" title="Database preservation">Database preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Deaccessioning" title="Deaccessioning">Deaccessioning</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_photograph_restoration" title="Digital photograph restoration">Digital photograph restoration</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_preservation" title="Digital preservation">Digital preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Disaster_preparedness_(cultural_property)" title="Disaster preparedness (cultural property)">Disaster preparedness (cultural property)</a></li>

<li><a href="Film_preservation" title="Film preservation">Film preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Finding_aid" title="Finding aid">Finding aid</a></li>

<li><a href="Fonds" title="Fonds">Fonds</a></li>

<li><a href="Found_in_collection" title="Found in collection">Found in collection</a></li>

<li><a href="Heritage_asset" title="Heritage asset">Heritage asset</a></li>

<li><a href="Heritage_science" title="Heritage science">Heritage science</a></li>

<li><a href="Historic_site" title="Historic site">Historic site</a></li>

<li><a href="Inherent_vice" title="Inherent vice">Inherent vice</a></li>

<li><a href="Intangible_cultural_heritage" title="Intangible cultural heritage">Intangible cultural heritage</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_pest_management_(cultural_property)" title="Integrated pest management (cultural property)">Integrated pest management (cultural property)</a></li>

<li><a href="Inventory_(library_and_archive)" title="Inventory (library and archive)">Inventory (library and archive)</a></li>

<li><a href="Inventory_(museums)" title="Inventory (museums)">Inventory (museums)</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_preservation" title="Media preservation">Media preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li>

<li><a href="Mold_control_and_prevention_(library_and_archive)" title="Mold control and prevention (library and archive)">Mold control and prevention (library and archive)</a></li>

<li><a href="Museum" title="Museum">Museum</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_media_preservation" title="Optical media preservation">Optical media preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Preservation_(library_and_archive)" title="Preservation (library and archive)">Preservation (library and archive)</a></li>

<li><a href="Preservation_metadata" title="Preservation metadata">Preservation metadata</a></li>

<li><a href="Preservation_survey" title="Preservation survey">Preservation survey</a></li>

<li><a href="Provenance" title="Provenance">Provenance</a></li>

<li><a href="Repatriation_(cultural_property)" title="Repatriation (cultural property)">Repatriation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruins" title="Ruins">Ruins</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_preservation" title="Sustainable preservation">Sustainable preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Treasure" title="Treasure">Treasure</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_archiving" title="Web archiving">Web archiving</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles and expertise</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archivist" title="Archivist">Archivist</a></li>

<li><a href="Art_dealer" title="Art dealer">Art dealer</a></li>

<li><a href="Art_handler" title="Art handler">Art handler</a></li>

<li><a href="Auction" title="Auction">Auctioneer</a></li>

<li><a href="Collection_manager" title="Collection manager">Collection manager</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservator-restorer" title="Conservator-restorer">Conservator-restorer</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_scientist" title="Conservation scientist">Conservation scientist</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_technician" title="Conservation technician">Conservation technician</a></li>

<li><a href="Curator" title="Curator">Curator</a></li>

<li><a href="Exhibition_designer" title="Exhibition designer">Exhibition designer</a></li>

<li><a href="Mount_maker" title="Mount maker">Mount maker</a></li>

<li><a href="Objects_conservator" title="Objects conservator">Objects conservator</a></li>

<li><a href="Paintings_conservator" title="Paintings conservator">Paintings conservator</a></li>

<li><a href="Photograph_conservator" title="Photograph conservator">Photograph conservator</a></li>

<li><a href="Preservationist" title="Preservationist">Preservationist</a></li>

<li><a href="Registrar_(cultural_property)" title="Registrar (cultural property)">Registrar (cultural property)</a></li>

<li><a href="Textile_conservator" title="Textile conservator">Textile conservator</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods and techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aging_(artwork)" title="Aging (artwork)">Aging (artwork)</a></li>

<li><a href="Anastylosis" title="Anastylosis">Anastylosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Arrested_decay" title="Arrested decay">Arrested decay</a></li>

<li><a href="Cradling_(paintings)" title="Cradling (paintings)">Cradling (paintings)</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_property_radiography" title="Cultural property radiography">Cultural property radiography</a></li>

<li><a href="Detachment_of_wall_paintings" title="Detachment of wall paintings">Detachment of wall paintings</a></li>

<li><a href="Desmet_method" title="Desmet method">Desmet method</a></li>

<li><a href="Display_case" title="Display case">Display case</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_repository_audit_method_based_on_risk_assessment" title="Digital repository audit method based on risk assessment">Digital repository audit method based on risk assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Historic_paint_analysis" title="Historic paint analysis">Historic paint analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Inpainting" title="Inpainting">Inpainting</a></li>

<li><a href="Kintsugi" title="Kintsugi">Kintsugi</a></li>

<li><a href="Leafcasting" title="Leafcasting">Leafcasting</a></li>

<li><a href="Lining_of_paintings" title="Lining of paintings">Lining of paintings</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_deacidification" title="Mass deacidification">Mass deacidification</a></li>

<li><a href="Overpainting" title="Overpainting">Overpainting</a></li>

<li><a href="Paleo-inspiration" title="Paleo-inspiration">Paleo-inspiration</a></li>

<li><a href="Paper_splitting" title="Paper splitting">Paper splitting</a></li>

<li><a href="Reconstruction_(architecture)" title="Reconstruction (architecture)">Reconstruction (architecture)</a></li>

<li><a href="Rissverklebung" title="Rissverklebung">Rissverklebung</a></li>

<li><a href="Textile_stabilization" title="Textile stabilization">Textile stabilization</a></li>

<li><a href="Transfer_of_panel_paintings" title="Transfer of panel paintings">Transfer of panel paintings</a></li>

<li><a href="UVC-based_preservation" title="UVC-based preservation">UVC-based preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="VisualAudio" title="VisualAudio">VisualAudio</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_immovable_cultural_property" title="Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property">Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property</a> by item type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_archaeological_sites" title="Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites">Archaeological sites</a></li>

<li><a href="Preservation_of_cultural_venues" title="Preservation of cultural venues">Cultural venues</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_frescos" title="Conservation and restoration of frescos">Frescos</a></li>

<li><a href="Heritage_railway" title="Heritage railway">Heritage railways</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_historic_gardens" title="Conservation and restoration of historic gardens">Historic gardens</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_outdoor_artworks" title="Conservation and restoration of outdoor artworks">Outdoor artworks</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_outdoor_bronze_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of outdoor bronze objects">Outdoor bronze objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_outdoor_murals" title="Conservation and restoration of outdoor murals">Outdoor murals</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_movable_cultural_property" title="Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property">Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property</a> by item type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation and restoration of aircraft">Aircraft</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_ancient_Greek_pottery" title="Conservation and restoration of ancient Greek pottery">Ancient Greek pottery</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_bone%2C_horn%2C_and_antler_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of bone, horn, and antler objects">Bone, horn, and antler objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_books%2C_manuscripts%2C_documents%2C_and_ephemera" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation and restoration of books, manuscripts, documents, and ephemera">Books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_ceramic_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of ceramic objects">Ceramic objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_clocks" title="Conservation and restoration of clocks">Clocks</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_copper-based_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of copper-based objects">Copper-based objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_feathers" title="Conservation and restoration of feathers">Feathers</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_flags_and_banners" title="Conservation and restoration of flags and banners">Flags and banners</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_fur_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of fur objects">Fur objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_glass_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of glass objects">Glass objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_herbaria" title="Conservation and restoration of herbaria">Herbaria</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_human_remains" title="Conservation and restoration of human remains">Human remains</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_illuminated_manuscripts" title="Conservation and restoration of illuminated manuscripts">Illuminated manuscripts</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_insect_specimens" title="Conservation and restoration of insect specimens">Insect specimens</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_iron_and_steel_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of iron and steel objects">Iron and steel objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_ivory_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of ivory objects">Ivory objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_Judaica" title="Conservation and restoration of Judaica">Judaica</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_lacquerware" title="Conservation and restoration of lacquerware">Lacquerware</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_leather_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of leather objects">Leather objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_lighthouses" title="Conservation and restoration of lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals" title="Conservation and restoration of metals">Metals</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_musical_instruments" title="Conservation and restoration of musical instruments">Musical instruments</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_neon_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of neon objects">Neon objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_new_media_art" title="Conservation and restoration of new media art">New media art</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_paintings" title="Conservation and restoration of paintings">Paintings</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_painting_frames" title="Conservation and restoration of painting frames">Painting frames</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_panel_paintings" title="Conservation and restoration of panel paintings">Panel paintings</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_papyrus" title="Conservation and restoration of papyrus">Papyrus</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_parchment" title="Conservation and restoration of parchment">Parchment</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_performance_art" title="Conservation and restoration of performance art">Performance art</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographs" title="Conservation and restoration of photographs">Photographs</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographic_plates" title="Conservation and restoration of photographic plates">Photographic plates</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_plastic_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of plastic objects">Plastic objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_rail_vehicles" title="Conservation and restoration of rail vehicles">Rail vehicles</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_road_vehicles" title="Conservation and restoration of road vehicles">Road vehicles</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_shipwreck_artifacts" title="Conservation and restoration of shipwreck artifacts">Shipwreck artifacts</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_silver_objects" title="Conservation and restoration of silver objects">Silver objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_of_South_Asian_household_shrines" title="Conservation of South Asian household shrines">South Asian household shrines</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_stained_glass" title="Conservation and restoration of stained glass">Stained glass</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_taxidermy" title="Conservation and restoration of taxidermy">Taxidermy</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_textiles" title="Conservation and restoration of textiles">Textiles</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_Tibetan_thangkas" title="Conservation and restoration of Tibetan thangkas">Tibetan thangkas</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_time-based_media_art" title="Conservation and restoration of time-based media art">Time-based media art</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_totem_poles" title="Conservation and restoration of totem poles">Totem poles</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_vinyl_discs" title="Conservation and restoration of vinyl discs">Vinyl discs</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_woodblock_prints" title="Conservation and restoration of woodblock prints">Woodblock prints</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_wooden_artifacts" title="Conservation and restoration of wooden artifacts">Wooden artifacts</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_wooden_furniture" title="Conservation and restoration of wooden furniture">Wooden furniture</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Intangible_cultural_heritage" title="Intangible cultural heritage">Intangible cultural heritage</a> preservation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_music" title="Ancient music">Ancient music</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_folklore" title="Applied folklore">Applied folklore</a></li>

<li><a href="Dance_notation" title="Dance notation">Dance notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Early_music" title="Early music">Early music</a></li>

<li><a href="Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">Endangered language</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnochoreology" title="Ethnochoreology">Ethnochoreology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Ethnomusicology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_folklore" title="Family folklore">Family folklore</a></li>

<li><a href="Folklore" title="Folklore">Folklore</a></li>

<li><a href="Folk_dance" title="Folk dance">Folk dance</a></li>

<li><a href="Folk_etymology" title="Folk etymology">Folk etymology</a></li>

<li><a href="Folk_instrument" title="Folk instrument">Folk instrument</a></li>

<li><a href="Folk_music" title="Folk music">Folk music</a></li>

<li><a href="Folk_process" title="Folk process">Folk process</a></li>

<li><a href="Foodways" title="Foodways">Foodways</a></li>

<li><a href="Folklore_studies" title="Folklore studies">Folklore studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Heritage_language" title="Heritage language">Heritage language</a></li>

<li><a href="Heritage_language_learning" title="Heritage language learning">Heritage language learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">Indigenous intellectual property</a></li>

<li><a href="Indigenous_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous culture">Indigenous culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">Indigenous language</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_death" title="Language death">Language death</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_preservation" title="Language preservation">Language preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Language revitalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Living_history" title="Living history">Living history</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_history_preservation" title="Oral history preservation">Oral history preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Preservation_of_meaning" title="Preservation of meaning">Preservation of meaning</a></li>

<li><a href="Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a></li>

<li><a href="Tradition#Preservation" title="Tradition">Tradition preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conservation_issues_of_Pompeii_and_Herculaneum" title="Conservation issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum">Conservation issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecce_Homo_(Garc%C3%ADa_Mart%C3%ADnez_and_Gim%C3%A9nez)" title="Ecce Homo (García Martínez and Giménez)">Conservation-restoration of Ecce Homo by Elías García Martínez</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation-restoration_of_Thomas_Eakins'_The_Gross_Clinic" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation-restoration of Thomas Eakins' The Gross Clinic">Conservation-restoration of The Gross Clinic by Thomas Eakins</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation-restoration_of_Leonardo_da_Vinci's_The_Last_Supper" title="Conservation-restoration of Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper">Conservation-restoration of Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_Pompeian_frescoes" title="Conservation and restoration of Pompeian frescoes">Pompeian frescoes</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation-restoration_of_the_Shroud_of_Turin" title="Conservation-restoration of the Shroud of Turin">Conservation-restoration of the Shroud of Turin</a></li>

<li><a href="Restoration_of_the_Sistine_Chapel_frescoes" title="Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes">Conservation-restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation-restoration_of_the_Statue_of_Liberty" title="Conservation-restoration of the Statue of Liberty">Conservation-restoration of the Statue of Liberty</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation-restoration_of_the_H.L._Hunley" title="Conservation-restoration of the H.L. Hunley">Conservation-restoration of the H.L. Hunley</a></li>

<li><a href="1966_flood_of_the_Arno" title="1966 flood of the Arno">Conservation response to flood of Arno, Florence</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_and_Contemporary_Art_Research_Initiative" title="Modern and Contemporary Art Research Initiative">Modern and Contemporary Art Research Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Preservation_Metadata%3A_Implementation_Strategies" title="Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies">Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Humanities54" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Humanities54" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;height:2.5em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Classics" title="Classics">Classical studies</a></li>

<li><a href="History" title="History">History</a></li>

<li><a href="The_arts#Literary_arts" title="The arts">Language arts</a>

<ul><li><a href="Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dance" title="Dance">Dance</a></li>

<li><a href="Musicology" title="Musicology">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a>

<ul><li><a href="Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">Filmmaking</a></li>

<li><a href="Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a></li>

<li><a href="Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Interdisciplinary_fields24" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_humanities" title="Health humanities">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_humanities" title="Medical humanities">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_humanities" title="Public humanities">Public</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li>

<li><a href="Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">Belles-lettres</a></li>

<li><a href="Bildung" title="Bildung">Bildung</a></li>

<li><a href="Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism" title="Criticism">Criticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a>

<li><a href="General_knowledge" title="General knowledge">General knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>

<li> <a href="Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_condition" title="Human condition">Human condition</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">Liberal arts education</a>

<ul><li><a href="Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li>

<li><a href="Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">Quadrivium</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-realization" title="Self-realization">Self-realization</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-reflection" title="Self-reflection">Self-reflection</a></li>

<li><a href="Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_Journal_of_Archaeology" title="American Journal of Archaeology">American Journal of Archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Humanities" title="History of Humanities">History of Humanities</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanitas_(journal)" title="Humanitas (journal)">Humanitas</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanities_and_Social_Sciences_Communications" title="Humanities and Social Sciences Communications">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a></li>

<li><a href="Journal_of_Controversial_Ideas" title="Journal of Controversial Ideas">Journal of Controversial Ideas</a></li>

<li><a href="Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society" title="Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Leonardo_(journal)" title="Leonardo (journal)">Leonardo</a></li>

<li><a href="Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a></li>

<li><a href="Revue_des_%C3%89tudes_Arm%C3%A9niennes" title="Revue des Études Arméniennes">Revue des Études Arméniennes</a></li>

<li><a href="Teaching_Philosophy" title="Teaching Philosophy">Teaching Philosophy</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arts_and_Humanities_Research_Council" title="Arts and Humanities Research Council">Arts and Humanities Research Council</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a>

<ul><li><a href="Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Humanities%2C_arts%2C_and_social_sciences" title="Humanities, arts, and social sciences">Humanities, arts, and social sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Humanities" title="Master of Humanities">Master of Humanities</a></li>

<li><a href="Moscow_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Moscow University for the Humanities">Moscow University for the Humanities</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Philistinism" title="Philistinism">Philistinism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Popular_culture#Criticism" title="Popular culture">Criticism of mass culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanities_in_the_United_States" title="Humanities in the United States">Humanities in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_people_considered_a_founder_in_a_humanities_field" title="List of people considered a founder in a humanities field">List of people considered a founder in a humanities field</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_the_humanities" title="Outline of the humanities">Outline of the humanities</a></li>

<li><a href="Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Latin_school#Studia_Humanitatis" title="Latin school">Studia Humanitatis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences310" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Social_sciences310" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a>

<ul>

<li><a href="Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a>

<ul><li><a href="Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li>

<li><a href="Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History" title="History">History</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li>

<li><a href="World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li>

<li><a href="Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a>

<ul><li><a href="International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li>

<li><a href="Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Administration

<ul><li><a href="Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li>

<li><a href="Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li>

<li><a href="Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_animal_studies" title="Critical animal studies">Critical animal studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Education" title="Education">Education</a></li>

<li>Environmental

<ul><li><a href="Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li>

<li><a href="International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Management" title="Management">Management</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li>

<li>Philosophies

<ul><li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Planning

<li><a href="Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li>

<li><a href="Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li>

<li><a href="Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Behavioural_sciences" title="Behavioural sciences">Behavioural sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23498#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2493" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23498#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2493" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4002827-6">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85006507">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13318444z">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13318444z">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566298">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph118578&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX525128">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000054685&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=918">Greece</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007294830305171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008253">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10639088">NARA</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=44783">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/e25beeee-87f3-491b-adfe-0b1d71f0f91f">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-07" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Archaeology&oldid=1304646309">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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